Reasons for the US Invasions of Key Caribbean Nations

Reasons for the United States Intervention in the
following territories

Cuba (1898)
Cuba was of strategic importance to the U.S. because it lay across the mouth
of the Gulf of Mexico and blocked the United States’ access to the Caribbean.
Cuba commanded the important shipping lanes of the Yucatan Channel and
the Florida Strait. Havana, the capital and main port of Cuba was the key
port in the Spanish trade system.
From 1825 to 1859, the United States made several attempts to purchase
Cuba. In 1825, they asked for Cuba as security for a loan to Spain but were
refused. In 1848, President Polk of the U.S. offered $100 million but was
refused. In 1852, President Pierce also offered $100 million and hinted that
he would go up to $130 million if necessary. In 1854, President Pierce offered
$120 million unsuccessfully. The last attempt made in 1859 failed. After that,
the U.S. resorted to economic, diplomatic, ideological, and military reasons
from 1868 to 1898 to intervene in Cuba. These reasons included the
protection of U.S. investments, Spain’s failure to emancipate slaves and
grant internal self-government, the fact that other powers had imperial
designs in the region and the blowing of a U.S. battleship in Havana Harbour.
In 1895, a new revolution for independence had started in Cuba. The U.S.
urged Spain to terminate the fighting because American commerce and
interests had suffered heavily. However, the revolutionaries continued
because of their desire for independence. As a result, the government sent
the battleship, USS Maine to Cuba in January 1898. The battleship was blown
up in Havana Harbour and about 260 Americans were killed. The U.S. blamed
Spain and demanded its withdrawal from Cuba. Spain refused and the U.S.
declared war on Spain in April 1898. After three months of fighting, the
Spanish Army surrendered at Santiago. In December 1898, by the Treaty of
Paris, Spain recognized the independence of Cuba. From 1898 to 1903, the
U.S. occupied Cuba militarily in order to ‘’Americanize’’ Cuba before
complete independence.

Puerto Rico (1898)
Puerto Ricans agitated for home rule throughout most of the 19th century and
ended in 1898 when Spain introduced the Charter of Autonomy which
granted self-government to the Puerto Ricans. Under this Charter, Puerto
Ricans were given an elected chamber of Representatives and a 15- member
Council of Administration (a Senate), eight of whom were elected by Puerto
Rico, the remaining seven were nominated by the Governor-General
appointed by the Crown.
Under the Charter, general elections were held in March 1898. For the first
time, Puerto Ricans were free from Spanish government restrictions since the
Spanish settled on the island. However, this freedom was short-lived when
the Spanish American war of 1898 spread to all and by August, the island
was taken. Most of the Puerto Ricans welcomed the American soldiers and
there was little resistance. The Puerto Ricans thought that they would be
better off materially and politically under the United States.
The Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico were made American territories, but
not American States. The U.S. had to pay Spain $20 million for the loss of
these territories. The important constitutional change made by Puerto Rico
earlier in the year no longer existed since Puerto Rico changed her Spanish
‘’master’’ for an American ‘’master’’.
The United States wanted to control Puerto Rico because:
1. The island was strategically located. Puerto Rico commanded the
eastern approach to the Caribbean and so was of great geographic and
strategic importance to the United States. The control of the Caribbean
was critical to the control of the waters including the Gulf of Mexico
which was adjacent to the United States.
2. The island was close to the mainland. United States’ control of the
island would reduce the risk of European powers controlling and
spreading their ideologies there.
3. Puerto Rico was an ideal location for the construction of a base to help
protect a Central American canal. A canal was essential for the easy
movement of the United States’ Pacific and Atlantic fleets as well as for
the United States’ trade. From this base, the United States could better
‘’police’’ and control the Caribbean as its own ‘’backyard’’.
4. Puerto Rico was an important investment outlet for North Americans
who pumped millions of dollars into agro-exports especially sugar and
tobacco. There were large investments in banking, public utilities, and
manufacturing that were sustained by cheap Puerto Rican labour.
5. Puerto Rico provided a market for the surplus products from American
factories and food from American farms.
6. Puerto Rico provided the United States with raw materials primarily
tobacco and sugar which enjoyed protective tariffs in the American
market.

Panama (1904)
The Spanish-American War had made the United States realise that there
was an urgent need for a canal through Central America to facilitate the
rapid movement of troops between the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans.
When the war broke out, it took out the USS Oregon more than two months
to sail from California around Cape Horn to the scene of the battle in Cuba.
The war was almost over before the ship arrived.
As a result, a canal was needed for the following reasons:

1. A canal would provide a shorter route for defensive purposes. After the
war, the U.S. had acquired territories and trading interests including
Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines, and Cuba in both the Atlantic and
Pacific. Hence, there was a need for quick communication between the
two oceans so as to have easier access to these territories.
2. The U.S. had extended its boundaries to the Pacific Coast, and so there
was an additional need for quick communication to facilitate trade
between the eastern and western parts of the country.
3. A canal would help the U.S. to expand its sphere of influence in the
the Caribbean and it would place it in a position to enforce its ‘’police’’
powers over the region and prevent European intervention in the region.
4. It would give the U.S. a political foothold in Central America as the
the canal would exercise direct control over the zone.
Before the United States could build the canal, it had to free itself from an
arrangement with Britain (Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 in which the U.S.
and Britain agreed to share in the construction and control of a canal), buy
the rights from a French company and obtain permission from the Colombian
Government.
President Roosevelt instigated a revolution in Panama when Colombia
revoked the agreement in 1903 to allow the United States to build a canal on
Colombian soil. The Panamanian Government gave the United States a canal
zone through its territory for $10 million down and $250 000 every year. The
canal was started in 1904 and opened for shipping in 1914. The canal Zone
was garrisoned by U.S. marines. The Panama Canal dominated U.S. policy
and strategy in the Caribbean in the 20th century.

Haiti (1915)
The United States primarily had a trading relationship with Haiti at the
beginning of the 20c. Compared to France and Germany, the U.S. only had a
small amount of investments in Haiti. By 1910, the Americans controlled
about 60% of Haiti’s import trade and the National Railway Company had a
concession to build a railway from Port-au-Prince to Cap Haitien. In addition,
some Americans acquired a 50% share in the Banque Nationale which was
the sole depository of the Haitian treasury that served the government’s
growing indebtedness.
Haiti was characterized by political instability with seven presidents between
1900 and 1915. Three of these were murdered by the Cacos (armies of paid
mercenaries) to make way for rivals. Haiti’s financial condition was made
worse by continuous revolutions and by 1915, the government-owned $32
million to European creditors. Woodrow Wilson, President of the United
States was of the view that the political situation required the creation of a
U.S. customs receivership. However, none of Haiti’s Presidents seemed
inclined to accept President Wilson’s suggestion except Vilbrun Guillaume
who took office in February 1915.
In 1914, the Haitian Government severed its connection with the Banque
Nationale and in doing so endangered the repayment of foreign debts.
Foreign creditors became alarmed because of the possibility of foreign
intervention. In addition, World War 1 started in 1914 and Germany would
assist her in war on this side of the Atlantic.
The United States took the initiative and intervened in Haiti because
Germany threatened to seize Haiti for the non-payment of debts to German
lenders. In addition, this would provide the opportunity for Germany to
establish the supply base that it had always longed for on this side of the
Atlantic. The U.S. wanted to protect the lives of American citizens who were
living in Haiti, their property there, the Panama Canal and the Windward
Passage, whose safety could be endangered if European countries took
control of Haiti as well as the interest of foreign creditors. The U.S. wanted to
restore law and order in Haiti and make sure that it was able to retain a
larger degree of political control over the country.

Dominican Republic (1916)
During the 19th century, the United States’ relationship with the Dominican
Republic was confined primarily to trading, investment in the sugar industry
and providing loans for the government. Between 1882 and 1899, the
Dominican Republic experienced political stability and economic growth
under the presidency of Ulises Heureaux. However, he was assassinated in
1899 and this resulted in turmoil.
In March 1903, another revolution broke out which caused several foreign
nations to send warships and land troops to protect the lives and property of
their nationals. In 1903, the government failed to keep its promise to
German, Italian, and Spanish creditors that it would make monthly payments
on its debts. As a result, the French and Belgian Governments threatened to
seize the customs house in Santo Domingo. This caused President Roosevelt
to issue his Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in December 1904.
In January 1905, an agreement was signed between the United States and
the Dominican Republic. This gave the U.S. the authority to administer the
customs collection from which the debts would be serviced. This meant that
European nations would have no reason to intervene, as the debts owed to
them would be serviced by the U.S. The U.S. intervention in the Dominican
Republic was known as Dollar Diplomacy and was credited to William Howard
Taft.
In 1916, President Juan Isidro Jimenez was forced to accept more American
control in the Dominican Republic. He refused and resigned, leaving the
country without a government. The U.S. became afraid that another
government would be elected that might not be in favour with U.S.
intervention. Consequently, further elections did not take place and
President Woodrow Wilson landed troops in the Dominican Republic so as to
prevent political instability and the intervention of German and other foreign
troops

Reasons for U.S. intervention in the Dominican Republic
Firstly, the U.S. wanted to forestall any possible European intervention. The
First World War was in progress and the Dominican Republic was indebted to
European nations including Germany. These countries could use the political
instability within the country as an excuse to intervene. Germany wanted a
place in the Caribbean to establish a base to help in its war efforts. The
Germans could use the political instability as an excuse to take over the
country for the non- payment of debts. A base could then be established and
this could pose a serious threat to the safety of the Panama Canal.
Secondly, the U.S. wanted to protect the canal, restore law and order in the
country and protect the lives and the property of its citizens in the country.

Grenada (1983)
In March 1979, the New Jewel Movement (NJM) led by Maurice Bishop seized
power when the Prime Minister was not in the country. He established a new
government called the People’s Revolutionary Government (PRG) which was
welcomed by the people especially when it launched a set of reforms to
improve health, education and housing. However, the new government
began to establish close ties with the Soviet Union, Cuba, and other
communist countries. The PRG delayed national elections, created a large
military force and with Cuban help began to build a new airport at Point
Salines which could accommodate large military aircrafts. The U.S. became
afraid that Grenada might become communist and in so doing became a
threat to democratic institutions in the neighbouring states.
In October 1983, extremist members of the PRG led by Bernard Coard,
Deputy Prime Minister seized power and placed Maurice Bishop under house
arrest. Bernard Coard and his followers were dissatisfied at Bishop’s
moderate policies and so formed a Revolutionary Military Council led by
General Hudson Austin. On October 19th, 1983, they executed Bishop and
other members of the PRG. The heads of government of the Commonwealth
Caribbean appealed to the U.S. for military assistance to restore democracy
in Grenada.
On 25th October, 1983, Operation Urgent Fury under the command of Admiral
Joseph Metcalf III under the presidency of Ronald Reagan launched a surprise
attack on Grenada. It was accompanied by troops from several British
Caribbean islands.

Reasons why the U.S. intervened in Grenada
1. The Caribbean Commonwealth leaders appealed to the U.S. for help.
2. The U.S. wanted to protect the lives of American citizens who were
mostly medical students at the American-run St. George’s University
School of Medicine on the island.
3. The United States wanted to strengthen its declining position as a
world power.
4. The U.S. wanted to restore political stability in the island.
5. The U.S. wanted to prevent the establishment of another communist
regime in the region, as this could undermine their regional and
national interests.