Movements Towards Independence and Regional Integration up to 1985

Attempts at Unification up to 1962, Reasons for Failure and the
Results
The Leeward Islands- early groupings
In the 17th century, the British Government was in favour of groups of
colonies because they were easier and cheaper to administer. For example,
colonial officials tended to give trouble by opposing the British Government’s
policies and decisions. Also, since less colonial officials would be needed, less
salaries would have to be paid. The colonies were not in favour of groups as
they wanted self-government and did not want a central body. In 1627, the
Earl of Carlisle was the Proprietor of Barbados and the Leewards under the
Proprietary System of Government. However, it was difficult to administer
them together, so Thomas Warner governed the Leewards only. From 1600
to 1670, Lord Willoughby was made Governor of Barbados and the Leewards.
After the Second Dutch War (1665-1667), the Leewards asked to be
separated from Barbados in 1771 and to have their own governor.
In 1674, Sir William Stapleton established the first federation of the British
Caribbean in the Leewards: St. Kitts, Nevis, Antigua, and Monserrat. This
federation remained active until 1685. However, this federation was
unpopular and in 1683, the Leewards rejected the proposal for one
government and one set of laws. In the 18c, each island had its own
assembly and made its own laws but shared one Governor and Attorney-
General.
The Leeward Islands (1871-1956)
Between 1816 and 1833, the Leewards were divided into two groups and
each had its own governor. There was the north-western group which
comprised: St. Kitts, Nevis, and Anguilla, and the south-western group which
comprised: Antigua, Barbuda, and Montserrat. In 1833, Dominica was added
to the north-western group. After emancipation in 1838, the ex-slaves had no
political rights and so the assemblies were unrepresentative. In 1871, the
British Government passed the Leeward Islands Act and set up the Federal
Colony of the Leeward Islands under one governor and one set of laws. Each
island was called a ‘’Presidency’’. This federation was unpopular with the
individual islands because it meant a loss of independence. It lasted until
1956 when it made way for a large federation called the Federation of the
West Indies.
Reasons why the Leeward Islands Federation failed:
1. The individual islands still had administrative powers.
2. The local legislatures refused to relinquish the power of taxation of the
federal legislature and so each island retained exclusive control over
taxation, and had its own treasury and fiscal system.
3. The federal government was supported by direct grants from the
individual island legislatures, and they gave the minimum necessary.
4. The individual islands were dissatisfied with the distribution of the
resources. They felt that their contributions were too large for the
services that they received.
5. They complained of neglect by the governor and federal officials.
6. The geographical separateness of the various colonies and their
insularity because of their long history as competitors, and as primary
producers of similar goods sold to the same markets.

The Windward Islands (1833-1958)
Barbados was the most windward of the Windward Islands and well outside
the chain of the Eastern Caribbean Islands. From 1763, the Governor of
Barbados acted as Governor-General of the Windwards, e.g. Grenada and the
Grenadines, St. Vincent, Tobago, and Barbados. Each had its own Assembly.
In 1838, Trinidad and St. Lucia joined the group as Crown Colonies but did
not have any assemblies. From 1833 to 1885, the Windwards were a formal
union known as the ‘’Windward Island Colony’’. In 1840, Trinidad left the
group.
In 1868, the British Government proposed federation for Barbados and the
Windwards but they resisted especially Barbados. The whites wanted to keep
their Assembly whereas the blacks wanted federation because they felt that
it would bring them increased wages. In 1876, the people rioted when
Governor Pope-Hennessy wanted to enforce federation and tried to dissolve
the Assembly. As a result, the British Government was convinced that
Barbados did not want a Windward Federation. The Governor of Barbados
remained the Governor-General of the Windwards until 1885 when Barbados
finally left the Windwards. From 1885 to 1958, the Windward Island Colony
consisted of Grenada, the Grenadines, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Tobago
until 1889 when it formed a union with Trinidad. Dominica was transferred to
the Windwards in 1940. The islands of the Windward Island Colony continued
to resist attempts to establish a federal assembly. The Windward Island
Colony however, did not end until 1958.
Reasons why the federation of the Windwards failed:
1. Barbados’ attitude in that Barbados was very strongly opposed to the
federation. It saw federation as a step towards Crown Colony
Government and did not want to adopt that system of government.
Furthermore, it was not prepared to merge with less fortunate islands.
2. The insularity of the islands.
3. The poor communication among them.
Jamaica and its Dependencies
The remaining British colonies in the Caribbean such as British Honduras,
the Cayman Islands, and the Turks and Caicos Islands except British
Guiana were grouped under Jamaica at some time in their history. In the
case of the Cayman Islands, they were politically connected with Jamaica
for 200 years and were not formally recognized as a dependency of
Jamaica until 1863 to 1959. Thus, as a dependency of Jamaica, the
Cayman Islands became a unit of the Federation of the West Indies when
this was formed in 1958. However, they broke their administrative links
with Jamaica after the break-up of the West Indies Federation and the
independence of Jamaica in 1962.
The Turks and Caicos Islands were administered as two separate units of
the Bahamas for almost 50 years after 1799. In 1848, the Turks and
Caicos Islands broke their associations with the Bahamas and became a
separate colony until 1873. As a result, the Turks and Caicos Islands were
made a dependency of Jamaica and the president was replaced by a
Commissioner appointed by the Governor of Jamaica. Like the Cayman
Islands, the Turks and Caicos Islands became a unit of the Federation of
the West Indies when it was formed in 1958.
British Honduras was a dependency of Jamaica and directly under Jamaica
from 1763. In 1862, British Honduras became a Crown Colony and was
placed under the Governor of Jamaica with its own Lieutenant-Governor.
In 1884, British Honduras broke its administrative ties with Jamaica and
became a separate colony.
Reasons for the failure of federation with Jamaica
1. The distance between the two territories made it difficult for
Jamaica to carry out its administrative responsibilities effectively in
British Honduras.
2. The races in British Honduras were more varied than those in
Jamaica. In British Honduras, there were the Amerindians (the
Maya), Europeans including Spaniards, and the Africans which
resulted in a multiplicity of languages and cultures unlike in Jamaica
where the population was made up primarily of Englishmen and
Africans.
3. Both territories had different historical experiences as Jamaica had a
sugar plantation economy whereas British Honduras had an
economy based on forest, lumbering with a small population. The
Jamaican laws were therefore, not always suitable for British
Honduras.
4. There were few resources available for public spending in Jamaica,
and there was always the fear that the interest of the dependency
would not be catered to.
5. There was the constant fear of being dominated by Jamaica, and so
the dependency preferred to be able to act independently.

The British West Indies Federation (1958-1962)
Forces against a West Indian Federation
 Early attempts at local federations such as the Federal Colony of the
Leewards (1871-1956) and the Windwards (1833-1958) had not been
popular with the people. In both federations, the individual colonies
had insisted on keeping their own assemblies. Hence, the forces for
and against federation were stronger than those for. For example, the
British West Indian islands were unwilling to sacrifice their autonomy.
They had developed a small community outlook (parochialism), they
were selfish and narrow-minded. They could not see the benefits of
being a member of a larger union were greater. In addition, this
parochialism had been made stronger by the lack of communication
between the islands which made them grow further apart and become
more insular.
 Economic rivalry was also strong and existed since the days of slavery
when islands bid against each other in the slave markets and in the
selling of their crops. For example, the older colonies did not want
Trinidad and St. Lucia to grow sugar on a larger scale for fear that it
would adversely affect their sales.
 The emergence of divergences after 1838 also helped to prevent a
closer union. For example, before emancipation, the British islands had
the same economic and social structure but this disappeared after
1838 due to the difference in wage rates between Barbados and
Trinidad, the development of a class of free peasants in Jamaica
because of the availability of land whereas in Barbados, most of the
people were plantation labourers.
Forces for a West Indian Federation
 The majority of the islands spoke a common language: English. Only a
small minority spoke French in St. Lucia and Spanish in Trinidad. In
addition, despite disagreements with the British Government from time
to time, the islands still held allegiance to the Crown and looked to
Britain for protection.
 Similar economic goals.
 The British colonies had a similar history and similar cultural patterns.
 The British Government was the greatest force towards federation
because it was administratively convenient. The British Government
always wanted to deal with the West Indies as one unit since it was
convenient to pass one law for all, e.g. Amelioration in 1823 and
Emancipation in 1833. In addition, the establishment of Crown Colony
Government was extremely convenient since it involved direct rule
from London by Order-in-Council which laid down one law for all with
no local opposition.
However, the forces against federation were stronger until 1939 when the
Second World War broke out.
Similarities among the British West Indian Colonies which
promoted unity
 Similar history. They were colonized by European powers, similar
slave societies, slave systems, plantocracies.
 Similar harsh existential realities or social problems such as
poverty, racism, unemployment, crime, and violence.
 Limited resources.
 Limited economic diversification.
 High debt.
 Similar language. Majority of the colonies spoke English.
 Vulnerability to natural disasters.
 Effects of globalization.
 Similar goals.
Unifying Forces in the Caribbean
In the first half of the 20th century, there were some bodies that
demonstrated that individual colonies were able to come together. For
example, the West Indian Standing Conference on Federation and the
West Indies Unofficial Conference but these bodies achieved little.
Other bodies had federation on their agenda, e.g. the British Guiana and
West Indian Labour Conference, and the Associated West Indian
Chambers of Commerce. Other bodies gave positive proof that the British
West Indian colonies could work together such as West India
Regiment, the Imperial Department of Tropical Agriculture and the West
Indies Court of Appeal.
Other bodies like the University of the West Indies were forerunners of
the federation. The Colonial Development and Welfare Organization in
particular paved the way for federation because it helped towards
economic viability and trained a body of experts to serve Federation.
Steps taken between 1945 and 1958 to establish the Federation:
The British Government had become discouraged by the attitude of the
colonies towards its attempts to create federations in the British Caribbean.
However, between the Wood Report of 1921 and the Moyne Commission of
1938, West Indian attitude turned in favour of federation. West Indian
politicians such as T.A. Marryshow of Grenada, Grantley Adams of Barbados,
and Norman Manley of Jamaica convinced the British Government that
federation would be supported.
Steps taken:
 In 1945, Colonel Oliver Stanley, the Secretary of States for the
colonies, agreed to establish a federation for the whole of the West
Indies. His successor, Arthur Creech Jones, called a conference in
Montego Bay, Jamaica for September 1947. Grantley Adams, Norman
Manley, and T.A. Marryshow all encouraged the British Government to
establish a federation.

 Every colony sent delegates from their legislatures to the Montego Bay
Conference except the Bahamas. At the conference, details of the
federation were discussed. Committees were set up to work out the
details of the federation, the two most important being the Regional
Economic Committee to consider basic problems like customs union
and the Standing Closer Association Committee to draft a federal
constitution.
 In March 1950, The Standing Closer Association Committee reported.
Eight colonies agreed to the federation without reservation and these
were: Barbados, St. Lucia, St. Kitts, Nevis, Grenada, Antigua, St.
Vincent, and Dominica. These delegates agreed that federation would
bring greater efficiency in government, purer democracy, and the
promotion of West Indians in government. Jamaica and Trinidad
agreed to the federation after, but was reassured that their political
progress would not be retarded. A total of ten colonies joined the
federation. British Guiana, Belize and the British Virgin Islands rejected
federation.
Aims of the British West Indies Federation:
 The strengthen the movement for self-government.
 To promote economic development.
 The safeguard the democratic system of government from
dictatorship and communism.
 To facilitate or promote regional integration/cooperation.
The Constitution of the Federation of the British West Indies:
The 1956 Conference agreed on the Constitution for the Federation. Then the
British Government established the Federation of the West Indies by Orders in-
Council. The British Government would be responsible for External Affairs,
Defence, and National Stability. The Crown would appoint the Governor-
General. The Legislature would consist of: a) a Senate of nineteen members,
one from Montserrat, and two from each of the other colonies; and b) a
House of Representatives of forty-five members, seventeen from Jamaica,
ten from Trinidad, five from Barbados, one from Montserrat and two from
each of the other colonies. The Executive would be a Council of State, not a
Cabinet, and would consist of the Governor-General, the Prime Minister, and
then other Ministers. The Civil Service would be under the Federal Secretary
and in practice it consisted of colonial servants who had been working in the
Colonial Development and Welfare Organization. The Federal Capital would
be Chaguararmas in Trinidad and Britain agreed to contribute £1 000 000
towards the construction. Grantley Adams of Barbados was elected as the
Premier of the Federation. Federation came into effect in January of 1958.
Reasons for the Failure/ Factors which led to the Collapse or
Dissolution of the British West Indies Federation:
Social:
 Geographical separateness- Islands divided by water. Lack of
communication between islands because of high costs of travel and
transportation.
 Insularity- There was conflict between territorial demands and loyalties
and regional demands and loyalties. The politicians chose territorial
interests over regional interests so federation could not achieve its
goal of regional unity.
 Envy and jealousy among members of state from their varying levels of
economic prosperity.
 Struggle between the leading colonies, Jamaica and Trinidad on one
hand, and the federal government on the other hand had several
issues. For example, there was a quarrel between Jamaica and Trinidad
and the federal government because Eric Williams of Trinidad
negotiated independently with the U.S. and the U.K. about where the
federal capital should be located. These colonies and the federal
government had growing tension between them so cooperation was
severely hindered.
 The West Indian people hardly supported the federation and felt that it
was not carrying out its function because they were not educated on
the importance or benefits of federation.
 The West Indian leaders quarrelled among themselves throughout the
period so unity was hindered.
Political:
 Federal government had limited political powers, only residual.
England remained in control of external affairs so the Federal
Government had no say in the external affairs of the colonies. The
Federal Government had no control over taxation.
 Federation was politically backwards. Trinidad, Jamaica and Barbados
were politically advanced compared to the other countries because
they had internal self-government so the islands were not politically
equal.
 Lack of strong political spirit of loyalty to the federation. The federal
constitution did not allow unit leaders to participate in both federal and
unit politics. These men such as Norman Manley and Eric Williams,
however, were more committed to local politics and so did not
participate in the federal elections of 1958.
 Jamaica and Trinidad, the largest units with approximately 80% of
population, land and resources, were under-represented, even after
the constitutional revision of September 1959. Federation dominated by
small islands through House of Representatives and especially the
Senate.
Economic:
 Federal government had little funds to do anything to create change in
the lives of the West Indian people. Funds that came from England and
unit contributions were limited. No possibility of economic
development as the Federal Government’s revenue was only $9 000
000 (BWI dollars).
 Jamaica rejected the idea of a customs union and free trade because
she made most of her revenue from duties. Trinidad supported
customs’ union and free trade. The two territories were opposed to
each other on this issue.
 Jamaica wanted control over her own economic development. Federal
Government and Adams wanted control over all economic
development.
 Trinidad opposed the idea of free movement as she felt that it would
lead to large-scale immigration into Trinidad and reduce the standard
of living.
 The withdrawal of Jamaica and Trinidad. Bustamante of Jamaica, leader
of the Democratic Labour Party, became sceptical of the federation
which he regarded as a ‘’federation of paupers’’. He was able to
persuade the electorate of Jamaica that they were being exploited in
the interest of the Eastern Caribbean islands. In May 1961, he declared
that his party was opposed to federation and he had asked for a
referendum. The referendum was held in September of 1961 with the
approval of the Federal Government. The electorate voted for
withdrawal from the federation. Four months after the Jamaican
referendum, Eric Williams announced Trinidad’s withdrawal from the
federation. Eric William is noted for saying ‘’One from ten leaves zero’’.
The federation could not survive without Jamaica and Trinidad. The
British West Indies Federation was dissolved by the British Parliament
in May of 1962. Trinidad and Jamaica became fully independent states
in August 1962.
Achievements of the British West Indies Federation:
 Federation facilitated the movement from colonialism to independence
through a united voice.
 The coming together of smaller states strengthened their effectiveness
in dealing with international bodies such as the United Nations.