Key Terms in the US and the Caribbean

THE UNITED STATES INFLUENCE IN THE CARIBBEAN Overview 
The United States were formerly thirteen colonies on the eastern coast of
North America. In 1783, they won their independence from Britain after a
successful rebellion. Their first president was George Washington. To the
east of the thirteen colonies lay the Atlantic, to the west lay Louisiana
(French), to the south lay Florida and New Orleans (Spanish) and to the far
south lay the West Indian islands owned by various European nations.

The United States entered the Caribbean in three stages:
 1745: The United States signed Pinckney’s Treaty with Spain and
therefore obtained permission to use the Mississippi and the port of
New Orleans. This made trade with the West Indies easier.
 1805: President Jefferson purchased Louisiana from France for $15
million. This gave the U.S an outlet into the Gulf of Mexico and easy
access to the Caribbean.
 President Jackson forced Spain to give Florida to the U.S. in exchange
for the U.S. taking over the payment of $5 million compensation which
Spain owed to the U.S. merchants.

Some terms associated with the United States
American War of Independence 1775-1783
This was a war that broke out between the thirteen North American
colonies and Britain thus resulting in their independence in 1783. The
Americans had protested against the rights of the British Parliament to tax
the colonies. Behind the protests were the 18th-century teachings on free
trade, individual rights and sovereignty of the state. In 1778 and 1779,
France and Spain joined the war on the side of the American colonies. In
1783, the U.S. became an independent nation after the 13 American
colonies defeated the British forces.

Manifest Destiny 1801
This was a theory put forward by Thomas Jefferson in 1801 and upheld by
other U.S. presidents. He put forward the idea that since the U.S. was
superior both racially and culturally to other people on the American
continent, then it was natural and inevitable that the U.S. would dominate
the Americas. As a result, an independent Cuba would gravitate towards the
U.S.
Cuba was located across the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico and so was
blocking the U.S. access to the Caribbean. Therefore, Cuba was of strategic
importance to the U.S. as it commanded the important shipping lanes of the
Yucatan Channel and Florida Strait. Havana, the capital and main port, was
the key port of the Spanish Trade System. Since Britain was declining as a
colonial power, Thomas Jefferson thought that Cuba would gravitate towards
the U.S.

Monroe Doctrine 1823
In 1823, President Monroe in his inaugural speech which became known as
the Monroe Doctrine and aimed at Cuba, warned European colonial powers
that the U.S. would consider any further colonization in the Americas,
suppression of independence or reclaiming of colonies that had won
independence as unfriendly acts towards the U.S.

Louisiana Purchase 1803
Although the U.S. remained neutral in the French Revolutionary wars, it
concluded Pinckney’s Treaty with Spain which opened New Orleans to U.S.
shipping and access to the Caribbean. Then the U.S. obtained coastline on
the Gulf of Mexico west of the Mississippi River through the Louisiana
Purchase by which the U.S. paid France $15 million for Louisiana.

Ostend Manifesto 1854

After the U.S. had reached the Gulf of Mexico, their nearest Caribbean
neighbour was Cuba. They tried therefore to obtain Cuba from Spain because
it was strategically located and was the key port to Spanish trade in the
Caribbean. European colonial powers France and Britain were alarmed at the
determination of the U.S. to acquire Cuba. President Franklin Pierce (1853-
57) was very eager to acquire Cuba and offered Spain $100 million but was
rejected. The U.S. arranged a meeting in Ostend in Belgium where they
offered $120 million for the purchase of Cuba. Pierce’s opponents issued the
Ostend Manifesto which showed how strongly France and Spain and Britain
rejected the U.S. designs on Cuba.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty 1850

The annexation of California in 1848 and the discovery of gold there shortly
afterwards resulted in the need for an interoceanic canal to facilitate the
movement of people and goods between the eastern and western seaboards
of the U.S. The site selected for the canal brought the U.S. into direct conflict
with Britain who had been expanding its influence in the area.
However, neither the U.S. nor the British government wanted exclusive
privileges in the area. Thus, Britain showed its willingness to compromise by
renouncing exclusive claim to the mouth of the San Juan River. In 1850,
Britain and the U.S. reached a peaceful settlement on the issue by agreeing
to the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty which provided a neutralized canal under the
exclusive control of neither country and for the non-colonization of Central
America. This involved American Secretary of State, John M. Clayton, and
British Minister, Henry Lytton Bulwer.

Ten Years’ War 1868-78
This was a civil war which took place in Cuba. There were many internal
disorders and differences in opinion. Creole plantation owners hated the
Spanish-born ruling classes and wanted annexation by U.S. Nationalists
including Afro-Cubans who wanted independence from Spain. The Spaniards
wanted to continue under colonial rule.
During this war, the U.S. remained neutral and merely acted as a mediator to
end the war on the basis of Cuban independence and the abolition of slavery.
This failed and the war continued resulting in strained relations between the
U.S. and Spain since the U.S. was convinced that Spain was unable to control
Cuba. This war eventually came to an end in 1878 with the Treaty of Zanjon
when Spain promised to emancipate the slaves and grant internal self-government
to Cuba. However, emancipation did not come until eight years
later in 1886 and self-government was not introduced. The President of the
United States at that time was President Rutherford Hayes who adopted a
policy of non-intervention in Cuban affairs.

Spanish-American War 1898
In February 1898, two incidents occurred that severed peaceful relations
between Spain and the U.S. and led to war. Firstly, there was the de Lome
letter written by Enrique Duppy de Lome to a friend in Havana in which he
denounced the President of the U.S. and implied that the offer of autonomy
was a ruse. The letter fell into the hands of Cuban insurgents and was
published in American newspapers.
Secondly, the explosion of the American warship, the USS Maine, in Havana
Harbour on February 14th, 1898 which resulted in the loss of 266 lives.
On April 20th, 1898, President William McKinley signed a joint resolution
that authorized him to use force to end the insurrection in Cuba. Two days
later he ordered a naval blockade of Cuba. The Spanish- American war had
begun. It ended in August 1898. In December 1898, the U.S. and Spain
signed the Treaty of Paris which reflected in the U.S. assuming sovereignty
over the Spanish colonies. Cuba was forced to accept an American Army of
occupation while Puerto Rico and the Philippines and Guam (in the Pacific)
were annexed outright by the U.S.

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty 1901
This was signed on November 18th, 1901 by Britain and the U.S. the right to
build, operate and defend a canal which would be ‘’free and open to the
vessels of commerce and war and of all nations’’ on the basis of equal
treatment. The treaty removed the British from their dominant position in the
Caribbean while enhancing that of the U.S.

Platt Amendment 1901
This was the compromise between annexation and complete Cuban
independence. It called for:
1. A commitment by Cuba not to sign any treaty which would impair
Cuban independence or to grant foreign special commissions without
U.S. permission.
2. A pledge to keep the Cuban debt at a low level.
3. An extension of authority to the U.S. to intervene to protect Cuban
independence and maintain stability.
4. Ratification of the acts of the military government.
5. Granting of sites for naval bases on the island.
The Platt Amendment was presented as an ultimatum to the Cuban people
either to accept it or face continued military occupation. It was adopted on
the 12th June, 1901 by the Cuban Constitutional Convention by a vote of
16:11.
The adoption of the Platt Amendment paved the way for the withdrawal of
the U.S. military forces and the end of the occupation. On 24th February,
1902, with the U.S. backing, Tomas Estrada Palma was declared the first
President of the Republic of Cuba.

Hay-Herrán Treaty 1903
The treaty laid down the conditions for the construction and operation of the
canal. It called for the payment of $10 million and an annual annuity of $25,
000, it specified a zone of 10kms (6mls) and granted the U.S. rights in the
canal zone for 100 years, renewable at the option of the U.S. These
conditions were unacceptable to the Colombian senate as they posed a
threat to the independence of their country. The U.S. Government was not to
be thwarted and since Colombia refused to comply, other tactics had to be
employed.

Big Stick Policy of the U.S.
In the early years of the 20th century, American policy was described as ‘’Big
Stick Policy’’ because of the aggressive nature of its attitudes towards the
developing Caribbean republics. The construction of the Panama Canal
during this period and the determination of the American government to
make the Caribbean an American lake were largely responsible for this
attitude. This policy was associated with Theodore Roosevelt.

The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine 1904
The Roosevelt Corollary operated under three administrations. Theodore
Roosevelt (international policeman), William Taft (who pursued the Corollary
under the guise of Dollar Diplomacy) and Woodrow Wilson (idealist).
Theodore Roosevelt decided to intervene in order to bring about a general
settlement of the Dominican Republic’s debt issue. He expressed his policy
in his annual message to Congress on the 6th December 1904. This
statement was called the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. It
meant that the intervention of the U.S. in the internal affairs of the Caribbean
and Latin American States was necessary to maintain stability in order to
prevent interference from European nations.

Dollar Diplomacy 1904-1930
This was associated with William H. Taft who succeeded Theodore Roosevelt
in 1909. In order to promote government and economic prosperity to prevent
European interference in the Caribbean, the Taft administration resorted to a
combination of loans and customs receivership in the delinquent states, e.g.
The Dominican Republic. Financial reform involved the refunding of old European
held bonded debts by loans floated in the U.S. or the participation of
American bankers in international financial operations. Dollar Diplomacy was
applied in Central American republics especially Guatemala and Honduras,
also Dominican Republic. The policy was best implemented in Haiti.

Organic Acts
This act was also known as the Foraker Act and was passed in Puerto Rico in
1900 by the U.S. Congress. This gave Puerto Rico a civilian government
(which replaced the military government) and a law-making body elected by
Puerto Ricans. However, the true power stayed with the U.S. through the
Puerto Rican Senate made up of an American government and five official
members appointed by the Puerto Rican Government. This Act also stated
that Puerto Ricans were not American citizens and could not travel freely to
the U.S.

The Second Organic Act
This Act replaced the Foraker Act and was also known as the Jones Act
passed by the U.S Congress. This Act gave a greater measure of self-government
to Puerto Rico by separating the executive and legislative
branches of government. It stated that:
 Puerto Ricans were citizens of the United States.
 There would be two elected houses of Parliament.
 U.S. civil servants were limited (only three heads of department).
 U.S. President and Congress could veto (reject) laws passed in Puerto
Rico.
 Puerto Ricans could not vote in U.S. congressional elections.
 Puerto Ricans did not have to pay taxes to the U.S.

As in Cuba, there were many improvements to the economic and social life
of Puerto Rico after U.S. intervention. In 1952, Puerto Rico was declared a
Commonwealth in the U.S.

The Dance of the Millions
This referred to the period: 1919-1920 when great profits were coming from
the Cuban sugar industry and there was a rush to buy Cuban sugar. Cuban
property continued to pass into the hands of the U.S. businessmen who
bought up plantations, factories, etc. Between 1919-1960, many hotels and
thousands of American tourists came to Cuba on vacation to gamble and to
buy liquor. The popularity of Cuba impeded the tourist industry of other West
Indian islands.

The New Deal
The period: 1917-1931 witnessed a steady decline in the economy of the
Virgin Islands due to the inability of the naval administration to devise
schemes for economic rehabilitation. The economy had declined to such an
extent that President Herbert C. Hoover, referred to the territory as ‘’an
effective poorhouse comprising 90% of the population’’. Thus, the New Deal
programme was extended to the Virgin Islands in the 1930s. It was
expressed primarily through the Virgin Islands Company which undertook a
programme of economic rehabilitation to create employment. Abandoned
sugar plantations were bought and peasant farming was encouraged to
produce food and cash crops. The company assisted farmers by ploughing
their lands, giving them seeds, transporting and milling their cane and
buying their produce. By 1914, the company was the sole manufacturer and
rum distiller in St. Croix.

Little New Deal
In 1932, Franklin Roosevelt was elected President of the U.S. He began the
New Deal programme to get people back to work which was extended to the
USA’s overseas protectorates. In Puerto Rico it became known as the ‘’Little
New Deal’’. It was Puerto Rico through the worse depression years but too
much money was spent purely on relief and too little on schemes that would
provide long- term employment.

Good Neighbour Policy 1933
Before World War 1 (1914-1918), the U.S. had adopted and pursued a policy
of active intervention in the affairs of Caribbean states because of their
unsettled political condition. The object was to promote peace and orderly
government in order to prevent the establishment of new productive
enterprises by American capital and prevent foreign intervention considered
detrimental to American investment and national security. Consequently,
due to its policies of interference, the U.S. government became increasingly
unpopular in the other countries of the Americas and Caribbean. The U.S.
tried to counter this unpopularity by acting with great restraint,
demonstrating the evolution of a new attitude towards the region. This
changing attitude was transformed into policy during the administration of
Franklin Roosevelt. In his inaugural address in 1913, he pledged the U.S. to
pursue a policy of a ‘’good neighbour’’. That pledge became known as the
‘’Good Neighbour Policy’’. By new treaties, the U.S. government pledge
began to withdraw its claims to rights of interference in the government of
other countries.

Cold War
After the Second World War (1939-1945), the policy of the U.S. in the
The Caribbean underwent a significant change. This restraint which characterized
the era of the Good Neighbour Policy was discarded. Thus, during the years
after the war persistent hostility or cold war between the two major powers
(Russia and USA) spread to Asia, Africa and Latin America.
The Soviet Union adopted the communist ideology after the resolution of
1917 and by 1945 had been recognized as the most outstanding member of
the anti-communist country. The USA with its so-called ‘’democratic system
of government’’ and as the most outstanding member of the anticommunist
group, assumed the task of protecting the western hemisphere
from the threat of communism.

Operation Bootstrap
In 1940, the Popular Democratic Party led by Munoz Marin won the election
in Puerto Rico. President F. Roosevelt sent a new governor: Rexford Guy
Tugwell who was sympathetic to Munoz Marin to Puerto Rico. Together the
two men set about remaking Puerto Rico. They adopted a massive industrial
programme which was later nicknamed: ‘’Operation Bootstrap’’, a title which
made it clear that Puerto Ricans would pull their country together by their
own efforts. The government established industries and then sold them to
private individuals and gave tax exemptions to new industries for ten years
in order to encourage industrial development.

Bay of Pigs 1961
In 1959, Fidel Castro staged a revolution in Cuba and took over from the
dictator: Batista. He felt that the U.S. owned too much property in Cuba and
began a programme of nationalization. He took over land, mines, factories,
businesses, etc., into which U.S. businessmen had invested. Thus, diplomatic
relations between the USA and Cuba were broken off when President
Eisenhower gave way to demands that all the staff in the American Embassy
in Havana should be withdrawn.
Both Eisenhower and the succeeding President John F. Kennedy, were under
pressure to take action to destroy the new revolutionary Cuban Government
before it became a communist armed base. However, Kennedy did not agree
to outright military invasion in Cuba for fear it might lead to a nuclear war
with the USSR. Both Eisenhower and Kennedy continued to plot secretly, and
Cubans who had fled from Castro’s rule were recruited, armed and trained
by the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency). On the 17th April, 1991, over 2000
men were made ready to land at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba.
The invasion failed due to lack of proper support from the majority of
Cubans, the fact that it was poorly planned and has no American back-up
force because the U.S. Government did not want to reveal its part in the
invasion. Also, Castro had learnt of the exact time, date and place of Castro’
s best troops, guns and tanks. The Bay of Pigs fiasco was a blow to the
prestige of the U.S. Government at home and abroad.

The Missile Crisis 1962
On 29th August, 1962, high-altitude flights over Cuba by American spy planes
showed what might be surface-to-air nuclear missiles being installed in the
western provinces by Soviet technicians. This was denied by Khrushchev, but
October 14th photographs delivered to the White House proved that
Khrushchev had lied.
President Kennedy informed the OAS (Organization of American States) of
the danger from missiles to both the USA and the Latin republics. He
demanded and got OAS to support the stop and search all Soviet ships heading
to Cuba. He then contacted Khrushchev and demanded the removal of the
missiles. Without waiting for a reply, he ordered 145, 000 American troops to
stand by in Florida and Nicaragua. Khrushchev backed down and on 29th
October, he ordered ships heading to Cuba to turn back and to start
dismantling missiles on the island.